Promoting Indigenous Family Health Essay

It is a known fact that Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander populations don’t live as long as their western counterparts as shown by AMA Health Report Card (2011). ‘Closing the Gap’ (Calma 2008) is a campaign aimed at a national attempt to support and bring equity in health to our Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander communities. In order to be successful in this we must identify the key issues causing this inequity and through public awareness and government campaigns such as ‘closing the gap’, we become closer to our goal of Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islanders reaching a full and greater life expectancy. Health reform initiatives are used to promote health care within their communities and encourage Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islanders to be educated about their own health. As a nurse, in order to assist in this process, an understanding of family centred health care and the Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander concept of family must be utilized. With these two nursing skills, the local health initiatives and government campaign’s, we are providing the best opportunity and support for Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander communities to take control of their health and ultimately ‘close the gap’. Key issues contributing to the ‘gap’ in health and life expectancy, as identified by AMA (2011), include; low income, limited education, low levels of employment, poor housing, affordability of health care, geographical access to health care and the acceptability of the health care practice to Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander communities. Illawarra Aboriginal Medical Service (2013) is a local health reform initiative for Aboriginals and Torres straight Islanders that provides a culturally secure environment where they can access health care due to it’s geographical location, affordability and mostly acceptability. Illawarra Aboriginal Medical Service (IAMS 2013) has two centers within the Illawarra making it geographically accessible. The center is entirely aimed towards the better health of Aboriginals and Torres Straight Islanders, ensuring all health care is affordable and providing as much assistance and support where it may be needed to help these communities improve their health. The main key issue identified by AMA (2011) that is addressed within the IAMS (2013), is the acceptability. The two medical centers are entirely based on the care given to the Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander communities, making them specialized and aware of cultural beliefs, customs and the correct communication techniques. The Illawarra Aboriginal Medical Services also employ Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander members of the community as their staff providing a culturally secure environment and a greater concept of family centred care and the Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander concept of family within their approach. The AMA (2011) states that Indigenous health workers are significant in facilitating the journey of Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islanders to better health. This also provides opportunities to the Indigenous communities to gain employment, contributing to the resolution for issues of low income and low levels of employment, as identified in the AMA Report Card (2011). Centers such as these provide Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander families a culturally secure, accessible and affordable method to be treated for their health issues in a more comfortable surrounding. On a larger scale the Department of Health and Ageing run by the Australian Government have many programs and health reform initiates in place to assist in ‘closing the gap’ as identified by Calma (2008). Element three of the Indigenous Early Childhood Development National Partnership Annual Report (2011) have a goal of increasing the provision of maternal and child health services of Indigenous children and their mothers. To achieve this, the Child and Maternal Health Services component of their program includes $90. 3million to be used for New Directions Mothers and Babies Services (Department of Health and Ageing 2011). This initiative increases access for Indigenous mothers and their children to; antenatal and postnatal care, education and assistance with breastfeeding, nutrition and parenting, monitoring of immunization status and infections, health checks and referrals for Indigenous children before starting school and monitoring developmental milestones. This initiative provides Indigenous communities with access to health care that promotes better health in the new generation of Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander Australians, designed to assist with ‘closing the gap’ by raising a new generation with fewer health issues. With this, we are able to address key issues identified by AMA (2011). The main key issue addressed by this initiative is access. Consultations are held with Aboriginal Health Forums to assist in the identification of priority areas for child and maternal health services. In their annual report, the Department of health and Ageing (2011) state that this ensures that access is given those most in need considering, geographic location, affordability and acceptance. The second key issue identified in the AMA Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander Health Report Card (2011) addressed by this initiative is education. The funding provided builds a solid base for providing much needed education to mothers about their babies and already existing children. In order for a program such as this to be successful, health professionals allocated to educating Aboriginals and Torres Straight islanders must be equipped and prepared to deal with the problems faced by cultural barriers as well as being experienced in a family centred care approach (Taylor & Guerin 2010). Family centred nursing care is an important factor in the health outcome of any given patient (Bamm & Rosenbaum 2008). They also claim that there is no exact definition of family, instead, the meaning of family and their level of involvement in care provided, is determined by the patient themselves. The core concepts of successful family centred care are; respect and dignity, information sharing, participation, and collaboration (IFPCC 2013). These principles are the main constituents of effective family centred health care, and ultimately better health outcomes for the patient themselves (Mitchell, Chaboyer & Foster 2007). These concepts can be utilized, with a correct nursing approach, regardless of age, gender or cultural differences. To provide the best family centred care to Indigenous Australians, nurses must utilize the main concepts above, but also have an understanding of the Indigenous concept of family. The Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander population have strong family values, however, it differs from the usual nuclear concept of family in common ‘western’ society. Their family has an extended structure, and in order to provide adequate family centred care, this concept must be understood by health professionals on all levels, including nurses (NSW Department of Community Services 2009). This concept of extended family and their Indigenous ‘community’ as their family means that children are not only the concern of their biological parents, but the entire community. Care of the children in indigenous communities is the responsibility of everyone. Family members can be blood-related, through marriage or through their community, such as elders. It is normal for a combination of mothers, fathers, uncles, aunties, cousins, brothers, sisters or elders to be involved into the care of the individual and these figures must be treated as their direct family even if not directly blood-related (NSW Department of Community Servies 2009). In order to provide family centred care, to not only Indigenous but also all patients, a therapeutic relationship and foundation of trust should be developed (Baas 2012). The principles of family centred care should also be incorporated, especially respect of the Indigenous culture and maintaining their dignity. Respect and dignity, combined with trust and a therapeutic relationship within the Indigenous community, information sharing, participation and collaboration should follow once enough trust has been developed. To gain the trust of Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander patient’s and their family, firstly an understanding of their culture should be pertained. When needed, to be aware of such customs as ‘Men’s and Women’s business’, and to respect these practices within your care (Tantiprasut and Crawford 2003). This shows the patient and their family members, you respect them and their culture. Introducing yourself in a friendly and polite manner, including all family members present and always respecting cultural values is key to receiving respect back and developing trust. Acknowledge and actively listen to the needs of the Indigenous people and also their community in a culturally appropriate manner. As described in the practice resource for working with Indigenous communities published by DOCS (2009) showing respect for their elders and community leaders and involving them in important decision making processes will also show that you respect them, their culture and that they can trust you and eventually your advice regarding health issues. In order to successfully be accepted by the community, communication techniques need to be specialized to avoid offending any members of the family or misinterpreting their language. Gaining a basic knowledge of their community will assist in understanding the dominant family groups, language groups and preferred names. This ensures you don’t step out of your boundaries and remain respectful in your approach to their care. Including or consulting with Aboriginal health care workers regarding communication and Aboriginal-English would be beneficial to adequately understand their method of communication. Understanding non-verbal methods of communication and being aware of your own non-verbal communication is highly appropriate when consulting with Indigenous communities. Always speaking with respect, clearly, and avoiding jargon will deliver the best results when building a relationship within the tribes (NSW Department of Community Services 2009). Remaining open minded when consulting with Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander communities in aspects of communication and family relations will avoid incorrect assumptions. It is also high important to play an active role within the community and their events. According to NSW Department of Community Services (2009) within Indigenous communities’ word of mouth is a powerful tool, once an outsider is known as someone who listens actively and can be trusted, the community will be eager to work collaboratively and participate in your health approach (NSW Department of Community Services 2009). When the principles of family centred care; trust, dignity, collaboration and participation, have all been achieved and a therapeutic relationship within the community has developed, the community will listen to your health advice. When introducing a health concept to the Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander families it is important to engage them actively into your care (NSW Department of Community Services 2008). Using appropriate communication techniques to explain health issues and the reasons they need to be addressed provides them with education and knowledge regarding why interventions need to be implemented. Allowing them to discuss their options and decide as a community is also important, forcing them to uptake medical help could be seen as disrespectful. Allowing time to answer all questions and concerns from various members of the family in a manner they can understand identifies that you are actively listening and honestly concerned for their health. Demaio and Dysdale 2012 show that continuity of involvement in their community, and providing a continuous support network will only further build their trust in your advice. The ‘gap’ in health and life expectancy between Indigenous Australians and ‘westernised’ Australians is a concerning issue within the country (Calma 2008). Health reform initiatives are funded by the government and local organisations to provide accessible, affordable and culturally safe health care to our Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander communities. These initiatives are designed to address the key issues identified in the AMA Report Card (2011) regarding barriers to health care. Approaching Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander family communities utilizing the family health care principles and with a knowledge of their concept of community family and understanding of their culture increases positive outcomes in their health education and furthermore assisting to ‘close the gap’.

Pablo Picasso essays

Pablo Picasso essays Pablo Ruiz Picasso was born October 25, 1881 to Don Jos Ruiz Blasco (1838-1939) and Dos prodigious artistic ability and proclaimed that he would never paint again. Pablo entered many fine arts schools and even entered The Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid. In October 1900 Picasso and Casagemas left for Paris, the most significant artistic center at the time, and opened studio at the Montmartre. Art dealer Pedro Manach offered Picasso his first contract: 150 Francs per month in exchange for pictures. This restless life with constant travels continued all his life, though later he would become more or less settled, but never finally settled. His original disproportion and abstractedness has captured the world over. Picasso was able to take very famous paintings and create his own masterpiece. One of Picassos paintings that have captured my attention, is The Old Guitarist. Another of Pablos works would be Acrobat On a Ball. The last selection would be Las Meninas. First, I chose The Old Guitarist. This painting is of interest to me because I play the guitar. Beyond the similar instrument, I enjoy the feeling of solace that the painting gives me. The slumped head of the man has me thinking that he is playing a song in his darkest hour. I think that overall darkness of hue that was chosen to paint this in did the idea more justice than if it were performed in lighter shades. Second, Acrobat On a Ball stood out to me from the hundreds of works Picasso has done. The reason this particular painting has leaped out at me would be that it seems very like a piece that Salvador Dali might paint. The closeness of the foreground figure with his back turned and the multiple layers of foreground , middle ground, and background give this impression. The ac ...

Get your financial life in order before the new year

Get your financial life in order  before the new year Are you finally ready to get your financial health in better shape? If so, then you’re thinking wisely, because it’s never too soon to start taking your relationship with money more seriously and plan for your future- like it or not, it’s going to come eventually, and those who prepare for it in advance will be ready to face it responsibly and with as little anxiety as possible. For most of us, the future can be an uncertain entity- what our professional and personal lives will look like as the months, years, and decades roll forward can be difficult to predict, and unexpected twists and turns along the way can derail our plans and force us to revise our goals along the way. This uncertainly can cause a great deal of stress, so it makes sense to have as much under our control and working in our favor as possible. Having a financial safety net of sorts to help see us through is obviously beneficial.Have we convinced you that it’s a good idea to start gettin g your financial life in order? If so, then keep reading, and consider using the following strategies to get you started on the right path.Get seriousOne of the most important aspects of getting yourself in good financial shape is to get in the proper mindset for doing so. Like most endeavors in life that require a change in behavior and extended displays of discipline, being in the right mental space at the onset, during the critical first steps, is an essential ingredient for success.So, in order to get started with the right attitude and mindset, try making a list of goals for getting your life in financial order. Both short- and long-term goals are fair game here. Do you want to pay back a loan or reduce your debt? Do you want to make a significant purchase sometime in the future that you want to be in better financial shape for, like a car or home? Are you preparing for a major life change, like a move or starting a family? Having a set of tangible (and achievable!) goals on yo ur radar can help you get in the right mindset for making smart financial decisions- both now and over the long haul. The truth is, sometimes it takes having a destination in your sights to make it through a long journey.Start smallFor most of us, we can’t simply buy our way to financial freedom- it’s more of a long, hard road than a quick sprint, and it’s a journey that often never has a definitive end. So, think of your initial move to get your financial life in order as a series of small steps in the right direction. Even if they don’t completely change your life in an instant, they’ll get you moving in the right direction and will help you develop fiscally responsible behaviors, build on your positive inertia, and bolster your mindset and discipline.Think of some small ways you can get started- perhaps save a little bit of money each week from each paycheck or find a few ways you can earn some extra money (a part-time job or selling some of you r unwanted stuff are great ideas). You can also try eliminating some unnecessary expenses in your life. Don’t look back- like any great journey, getting on the road to financial order begins with a single step.Get helpOne of the really nice things about getting your financial life in order these days is that there are more tools than ever before to help you stay on track. An army of app developers have devoted their efforts to creating financial planning, organizing, and saving tools that can help you get your finances in order and hit all of your money milestones along your path to financial freedom. A little Internet research to discover the latest and greatest apps that best meet your needs is time well spent. Many available apps are free or low cost, so testing some out and discovering the ones that work well for you through trial and error won’t be a monumental investment.You can also turn to friends and family for help- the truth is, having the important people i n our lives helping to keep us motivated can mean the difference between success and failure in a challenging situation. So, let your friends and family know about your financial plans, fill them in on how they can help, and use their support to achieve your goals.Getting your life in financial order may not be easy, and you may stumble and restart at times along the way, but it’s a journey worth taking, and one that’s best to start early. Use the advice and strategies presented here to help get you moving in the right direction when it comes to your money and finances.

Post Event Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Post Event Evaluation - Essay Example Businesses increasingly are supporting events to promote their services and products to the market and for charity activities. Different authors have defined events and theoretical constitutions of events. This enables us to classify the types of occasions are can be termed as events. According to Bowdin et al (2012), Governments now support and promote events as part of their strategies for economic development nation building and destination marketing. Other authors hold that events are more of social or staged activities. This means that events are composed of activities although mere activities ac not be categorised as events (Getz et al, 2007). This is because activities involve liveliness, energy and involvement but with events, there is a theme which accompanies those activities. The UK and various countries and cultures within it, have a rich tradition of rituals and ceremonies extending over thousands of years. These traditions, influenced by changes within society, have greatly influenced many events as they are celebrated today. Some of the events initiated in the UK in the traditional period still function religiously up to now. Example, King John initiated an event known as ‘The Lord Mayors Show’ in 1251 and which has continued to be pra cticed today. Currently, the lord mayor’s show is the largest parade of its kind in the world. LMS (2013) explains how the Lord Mayors Show has floated, rolled, trotted, marched and occasionally fought its way through 798 years of London history, surviving the Black Death and the blitz to arrive in the 21st century as one of the world’s best-loved pageants. While the ‘The Lord Mayors Show’ is categorized as a cultural celebration and a parade, it can be categorized as an event as it has been listed under the Getz et al (2007) ‘Typology of Events’. Getz et al (2007) provides further description towards these events as a joyful occasion and a day to observe

Gender and Sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Gender and Sexuality - Essay Example The ability to emote with others, feelings of intimacy which have nothing with any impulse of pressure to procreate, and the freedom to express all facets of the mind, are factors which distinguish people as a distinct species and the highest and most evolved life form. Giving and receiving sexual pleasure is a complex trait and a highly evolved capability at the same time. It may or may not be associated with reproduction. Sexuality involves both the physical body, as well as the mind. It is strongly influenced by environmental circumstances. Imposed norms of society dominate notions of sexuality and its link with gender so strongly, that the two axes are inextricably mixed in most minds. A strong bias towards norms of heterosexuality is an overbearing outcome of these conventions. Such impositions are so ingrained in standards of childhood development that instances of misconceptions and denials of natural instincts abound. This document reviews published literature on the valid and assumed links between gender and sexuality, considers the implications and burdens of stereotypes, reviews ethnic and cultural differences in the acceptance of homosexuality, and concludes with suggestions for a liberal world in which individual freedom with respect to sexuality is respected and encouraged. While there are some historical references to homosexuality during ancient times, heterosexuality has dominated the social development throughout the ages. The practice of homosexuality has been entirely repressed at worst, and indulged in surreptitiously and treated as a form of abnormal behavior, not just for centuries, but even during the first half of the 20th century. The scientific study of homosexuality is of relatively recent origin with a rapid acceleration of original work in recent times (Gonsiorek, 1982). The United States has led the world in creating a kind of revolution in researching and understanding homosexual behavior, especially during the last decade. However, the volume of work available to date is still scanty, considering the complexity and social significance of the matter. Collections of findings, surveys, and theories are therefore especially valuable at this stage. This applies to surveys of sexual preferences as well (Oliver, & Hyde, 1993). Homosexuality may be more prevalent, especially in some degrees, far more often and widely than conservative influences have cared to admit. Family backgrounds and societal influences need to be understood to appreciate the sexuality of homosexuals (Ritter, and Terndrup, 2002). It is now appreciated in professional circles that conceptions of homosexuality as have prevailed in the past, may be in grave error. Such biases are self-propagating in powerful ways because they form the backdrop to the development of personalities by infants and by growing children as well. An individual may not express or even admit to homosexuality because of strong conditioning of the mind that it is morally wrong, and because of imposed notions that heterosexual feelings are the only legitimate and desirable form of human sexuality. International researchers (Asthana, and Oostvogels, 2001) have observed ethnic differences between people of the same sexual orientation, with respect to their sexual habits and preferences. Homosexual men in Southern India for example, experience intimacy in ways different from the typical Western stereotype that

Effective Team and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Effective Team and Management - Essay Example Many people have different perceptions about the value that teams bring to an organization. Some people think that teams are a waste of time and other resources and thus organizations need to focus on individual output as is opposed to group performance. They point out certain weaknesses of teams such as laxity by some members and lack of individual responsibility when mistakes do arise. Teams also overshadow talent and other stand to gain where they did not sow. However, there is strong evidence that teams and teamwork is the best way to go for organizations that are seeking success. For teams to realize productivity there needs to be certain principles in place which have to be observed by all team members. Building a team spirit is a huge task and requires that managers acquire better skills of interpersonal management as well as interpersonal communication. Various theories have been fronted to help understand teams or groups and group dynamics. This paper takes a reflective appr oach to the modules we studied and tries to link it with the learning outcomes that were expected at the end of the session. Theories and other concepts learnt will be utilized in this critical reflection and discussion (Senior & Swailes, 2007, pp.138-153). Reflection from group exercises in weeks one to three Reflection is important in the course of my study (Illes, 2003, pp.209-215). Groups at work places are very important additives to any organization’s success story. I realized that there must be clear objectives as to why teams are formed in work places in the first place. This is because previously I had a notion that teams are simply about numbers. But I realized that teams should not be formed on the basis of filling up positions and coming up with large groups of people who have no objective of being together in such workplace settings. Many organizations end up promoting teams in workplaces for the purpose of boasting and propagate a total quality environment at wo rk. This is a very wrong idea. Teams within a workplace have been a very powerful tool in many successful organizations. The benefits of having teams at work are many and include the provision of motivation to employees who are members; they enhance job coordination (Sonnentag, 1999); they give an improved problem solving environment; and assist in better decision-making process, among others. However, I realized that there is a price to pay for having this good performance (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997, pp.1122–1149). As noticed, making decisions within a team takes a longer period than if one was to do it as an individual. This could be attributed to the fact that all members need to be consulted and consensus reached before a final decision could be acted upon. The process taken for teams to mature is also very long and slower. Teams have been known to evolve and mature into formidable groups that could carry out work effectively and this could not happen as fast as I thought . The other idea that I realized was the fact that teams needed long periods of training and comprehensive training for that matter in order for them to mature. Despite these shortcomings, I noticed that teams have major benefits mentioned above, which do outweigh these problems and frustrations faced by managers in many situations (Senior & Swailes, 2007, pp.138-153). Belbin Team Roles Theory has posed a good model for many managers struggling with teams in their organizations. The model has various fundamental concepts that are based on roles. I realized that

Literature Review On Leadership Styles On Stress Outcomes Management Essay

Literature Review On Leadership Styles On Stress Outcomes Management Essay The leaders leadership styles play a very important role in achieving goals of the organization. The leaders ability to adapt to internal and external environment changes and working with followers together is the key to success. Moreover, I should mention that many causal modeling revealed that leadership style has a direct, rather than indirect, effect on task performance. Highly complex and stress-laden workplaces present challenges to organizational leaders as they are faced with the task of managing the workforce while concurrently maintaining commitment and morale. Leaders can often be in the middle source of stress among employees in the workplace (Basch Fisher, 2000; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). As the distinctiveness of work changes, so must change the roles and tactics of all leaders. The Leader promote supportive relationships, elicit motivation along with assistants/followers, make possible more positive and less negative emotions along with assistants, and stimulate more kind evaluations of stressful tasks among assistants may be more effective than the more conventional leaders who usually tend toward task-directive methods. These leadership elements based on relation, motivation, and emotion are customary with transformational leadership styles (Bass, 1998; Yukl, 1998). Despite a considerable body of literature suggests that leaders based on transformational are effective, there is a small number of experimental research that has discovered how transformational leaders may impact subordinates/followers during stressful business deals. Taking into above mentioned I am to deal with transformational and transactional leadership styles their influence on different subordinate including emotional and motivational experiences. The effects of leadership style based on stressful task performance were examined (by Joseph B.Lyons, Tamara R.Schneider 2009) as potential mediators, further. The Nature of Leadership and Job Stress 2.1 Leadership Style In the field of organizational behavior the leadership is really an important subject. Leadership is one with the most dynamic effects during individual and organizational interaction. In other words, whether a management is able to execute collaborated effort depends on leadership capability. The excellent leader is not only inspires followers potential to improve efficiency and also meet their requirements in the process of achieving organizational goals. According to Stogdill (1957) leadership as the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. In latter days, Richards Engle (1986) defined leadership as about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. Definitions on leadership defined by selected authors were summarized into table 1. Year Author Definition of Leadership 1957 Hemphill Coons Leadership is the individual behavior to guide a group to achieve the common target. 1957 Stogdill Leadership is an influential activity to others or organization to achieve the target set by the leader. 1969 Bowers Leadership is an activity process of interpersonal relationship; others behavior is influenced through this process to achieve the set target. 1977 Davis Leadership means persuasion on others to enthusiastically chase for certain target. 1982 Morphet, Johns Reller Leadership means, in the social system, the individual action, behavior, faith and target are influenced by the others under volunteer cooperation. 1986 Richards Engle Leadership is about establishment of vision, value and creation of environment so that the objective can be accomplished. 1990 Sergiovanni Leadership means the leader satisfies the staffs demand by use of consultation, negotiation and compromise so that the staff trades his work for rewards. 1990 Jacobs Jaques Leadership helps others to strive and to enhance aspiration to achieve the target. 1993 Robbins Leadership is the ability to influence the group to achieve the target. 1994 Yukl Leadership is the process of influence on the subordinate, in which the subordinate is inspired to achieve the target, the group is maintained in cooperation, and the established mission is accomplished, and the support from external group is obtained. 2001 Northouse Leadership is exchanged relationship between leader and subordinate. 2003 Fry Leadership means use of leading strategy to offer inspiring motive and to enhance the staffs potential for growth and development. Table 1: Definition of Leadership After reviewing studies on leadership theory conducted in the past, it is generally divided into four periods: Traits theory in 1930s It focuses on the innate leadership qualities and competence. These innate qualities are not found in others. The so-called quality can be divided into physiological and mental aspects. The physiological aspect includes: height, weight, looks, and vigor while the mental aspect includes intelligence, confidence, and aggressiveness etc. Stogdill (1948) proposed twelve leadership related studies and was considered as representative of this period. Behavioral theory from late 1940s to late 1960s It believes that a leader will be able to achieve ideal organizational efficiency if he demonstrates effective leadership behaviors. These leadership behaviors may be trained or learned through experience. Actual behavior or leadership styles are emphasized. Representative research is conducted in Ohio State University. Ohio State University proposed considerationand initiating structure of leadership behaviors. Consideration is a behavior that focuses on strengthening relationship with subordinates based on their needs and perceptions, while initiating structure is a behavior that focuses on subordinate performance in goal accomplishment. Contingency theory in late 1960s: This theory states that there is no set of optimum leadership model in this world and that it depends on the situation encountered. Situational leadership theory began its development subsequently. It states that leaders need to adopt the most optimum leadership style based on different organizational situations. Among which, Fiedlers contingency theory (1967) is most well-known. Contemporary leadership theory since 1970s: The viewpoint of contemporary leadership theory states that leadership is a type of interactive process with the environment. Bass Avolio (1990) proposed transactional leadership and transformation leadership : Transactional leadership: Encouraging subordinates through incentive establishment. In other words, incentive elicits work performance. Transactional leadership is the basis for most leadership theories. It focuses on the exchange relationship between the leader and the subordinate (Fry, 2003 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ºNorthouse, 2001); transformation leadershipto enhance staffs trust and respect for leader by altering intrinsic work value and faith of staff at the same time in order to elicit work capabilities. Because charisma is viewed as an essential element, transformation leader provides incentives for subordinates, enhance subordinate potential and development. (Fry, 2003); and Charismatic leadership theory refers to the followers perception toward certain behaviors of the leader as being heroic or extraordinary. 2.2. Personality Charateristics Personality characteristic means ones psychological and physical phenomenon. At different time and condition, it adapts to different environment by unique behavioral mode and thinking method. Friedman Rosenman (1959) categorize personality characteristics into type A and B. Type A shows exuberant ambition and aggression. Type B has more patience and pays less attention to competition and sense of achievement. Definitions of personality characteristic were summarized as shown into table 2. Year Author Definition of Personality Characteristic 1959 Guilford Personality characteristic is a combination of individual trait and property, which generates a lasting and special characteristic different from the others. 1961 Allport Personality means dynamic behavior from psychological and physical aspect to adapt to the environment. 1970 Pervin Personality represents structure and dynamics from reaction to the environment. 1972 Scott Mitchell Personality is formed from accumulation of psychological growth and development. 1998 Robbins Personality is ones reaction to the others and consequence of interaction with others. 1985 Lee Personality characteristic means psychological attributes of affection and thought among people; its also a specific and lasting behavioral pattern. 1997 Lu The formation of personality is affected by gene, culture, environment, and social factor. Table 2 Definitions of Personality Characteristic 2.3. Empirical Studies The verification researches made by the domestic and foreign scholars on leadership, job stress, personality characteristic and turnover intention are described as follows: In research of leader behavior and job stress, Fleishman (1964) found that consideration in the leader behavior has negative connection with the job stress, while the initiating structure is positively connected with job stress; In research of leader behavior and turnover intention, Fleishman Harris (1962) in the study of the influence of various leadership types on turnover rate and complaint rate found that consideration for the subordinates is negatively connected with the turnover, while the initiating structure is positively connected with turnover; In research of job stress and turnover intention, Parasuraman Alutto (1984) in the research on 217 employees at the food manufacturing company indicated that job stress had positive connection with turnover intention; In research of personality characteristics and job stress, Chang (1998) chose employees of Taiwan Sugar Company as research subject and indicated that those with type A personality characteristic had higher perception of job stress and shew more physical and psychological discomfort reactions; In research of personality characteristics and turnover intention, Chang (2003) released 260 questionnaires to 11 schools and revealed that personality characteristics had no significant impact on turnover intention. The relevant empirical researches were listed in table 3. Author Year Sample Empirical Result Hsu 1986 222 operators of China Steel Company. In leadership method, consideration has significantly negative connection with job stress, but the initiating structure has apparently positive connection with job stress. For overall , leadership is negatively connected with job stress. Huang 1984 207 engineers of a RD institute Consideration leadership has negative connection with turnover. Ke 1989 217 employees of 105 companies In leader behavior, consideration has negative connection with turnover intention and the initiating structure is negatively connected with turnover intention. Parasuraman Alutto 1984 217 employees of food manufacturing company Job stress has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Tzeng 1994 Employees of 12 five-star hotels in Taipei Job stress is positively connected with turnover intention. Tzeng 2001 180 high-tech industry and 255 traditional industry People with A-type personality characteristics perceive job stress more serious while, those who with B-type perceive the least. Chang 1998 All inland employees of Taiwan Sugar Company People with more A-type personality characteristics perceive higher extent of job stress and also higher improper reaction physically and psychologically. Wang 1990 Employees from 95 gas stations at 23 cities People with A-type personality characteristics have significantly higher job stress than those of people with B-type. Chiu 1994 2,400 employees of Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. People with A-type personality characteristics perceive more anxiety, disconsolation, low self-respect than those people with B-type, yet the overall job stress does not reach significant level. Chang 2003 260 contractual personnel at 11 schools The research result finds that personality characteristics has no evident influence on turnover intention. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research result indicates no significant variance between male and female on job stress. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office Age is positively connected with job stress. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Age has significantly positive connection with turnover intention. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Single people feel higher job stress than the married ones. Chen 1997 Employees of enterprises in mid of Taiwan Married people perceive more disconsolate job stress than single ones. Cheng 1999 200 female operators of wafer manufacturer in Hsinchu Industrial Zone Turnover intention of single people is higher than that of married ones. Fang 1999 194 staffs of Tainan Revenue Service Office The research found turnover intention difference between female and male is not evident. Chuang 2000 Research of job stress and job satisfaction on 174 high-tech employees Workers seniority has positive connection with job stress. Cheng 1994 333 bus drivers in Taipei Workers seniority has negative connection with job stress. Table 3 Empirical Research 2.4. Job Stress Job stress means improper occupational stress or burden that badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself (Kroes, 1974). Peng (1998) states that psychological stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but a handling method or relationship; it is the interaction between the individual and the environment, which gains or consumes resources of human behavior and endangers the individual health. When the individual feels job stress, it usually comes along with following symptoms: Psychological aspect passive, disconsolate, anxious and anger; physical aspect imbalance incretion, headache, sleepless and disturbed; Behavioral aspect change of living behavior, decrease of job involvement, absence from work, and turnover. The definitions of various authors were summarized in table 4. Year Author Definition of Job Stress 1956 Seley Stress means uncertain reaction of the body to demand, and also basic demand from internal or external environment, or reaction result against threat of balance condition. 1971 French Stress is the consequence that an individuals ability or skills fail to coordinate with the job or the job environment cannot satisfy the individual demand. 1974 Kroes Stress is improper occupational pressure or burden which badly affects the psychological and physical condition of the worker himself. 1978 Beehr Newman Stress is the change that drives the worker from normal psychological and physical condition. 1980 Ivancevich Matteson Stress is some adaptive reaction, a consequence of special psychological or physical demand from the event, and such reaction takes personal character as intermediary. 1984 Fleming et al. Stress is a conceptualized process and contains ones recognition and reaction to danger or threat. 1985 Jamal Stress is ones reaction against threat in the working environment. 1998 Peng The psychology claims that job stress is neither stimulus nor reaction but some handling method or relationship. Table 4 Definition of Job Stress 3.0. The effects of leadership style on stress outcomes. Transactional versus Transformational Leadership. 3.1. Transactional Leadership Basss (1998) Very many Leadership Model discusses 3 leadership styles:1: transactional, 2:laissez-faire, and 3:transformational. A fundamental feature of transactional leadership is the social exchange procedure. There are 3 appearances of transactional leadership: contingent reward, management by exception-active, and management by exception-passive. Contingent reward leadership engrosses establishing worker expectancies of rewards (e.g., financial compensation or public praise) for good acting. Management by exception-active leadership is distinguished by actively watching subordinate departures from performance standards. These leaders inspire subordinates by encouraging them to preserve established performance standards and avoid making errors. I case performance differences are detected, the leader will get involved and make the compulsory corrections. Vice versa to the active form, passive management by exception leaders do not actively monitor performance deviations but rather wait to be notified of performance deviations. After that upon recognition of a performance departure, the leader will intervene. My literature review focuses only on the active form of management by exception, and all future suggestions to management by exception leadership are in orientation to the active structure of management by exception. Ghee Soon Lim, (2004) transactional leaders focus on the present and do well at keeping the organization running smoothly and efficiently. They are good at traditional management functions such as planning and budgeting and generally focus on the impersonal aspects of job performance. Transactional leaders can be quite effective. By clarifying expectations, leaders help build followers confidence. In addition, satisfying the needs of subordinates may improve productivity and morale. Transactional leaders maintain stability within the organization rather than promote change. Transactional skills are important for all leaders. In todays world, where organizational success often depends on continuous change, effective leaders also use a different approach. 3.2. Transformational Leadership Comparing with transactional leaders, transformational leaders request to the motivational, emotional, and developmental needs of their followers (Bass, 1998). Transformational leadership is distinguished by four elements: inspirational motivation (the ability to naturally easily motivate and request to someones emotions), idealized influence (the ability to obtain respect from others), individualized support (the ability to support followers sole developmental needs), and intellectual stimulation (the ability to stimulate followers desire to learn and develop) (Bass, 1998). Transformational leaders give power to employees through emotional requests (Yukl, 1998) and may alter the frame stressful situations as chances for growth at the same time as providing the necessary maintain throughout the performance procedure (Bass, 1998; Sosik Godshalk, 2000). Research has displayed that transformational leaders are successful leaders (Lowe, Kroeck, Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, Mackenzie Bommer, 1996; Yammarino, Spangler Bass, 1993). On the other hand, most leadership study has used correlation data to scan how certain leadership styles relate to act and other minor variables, as a result numerous researchers called for increased use of testing in leadership research (Brown Lord, 1999; Kirkpatrick Locke, 1996). There are some empirical study where leadership styles (notably charismatic styles) have been operated (Cherulnik, Donley, 2001; Bono Ilies, 2006), so far few studies have tested whether those manipulations effect in changes in objective task performance. Because of their higher visioning, support, and potential for alter the framing of stressful situations as chances, it is expected that transformational leaders will improve followers task performance throughout stressful tasks. 3.3. Evaluation transformational and transactional leadership styles and their influence on individuals performance on a stressful task. In my literature review I tried to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership style impacts more positively individuals performance on a stressful tasks and overall followers performance. First of all analyzing transformational and transactional leadership styles, basically Leadership style may determine the effectiveness of customer service training and deployment. Tichy and Devanna (1986) suggest that both transformational and transactional leadership are both effective leadership styles. Tosi (1982) also agrees. Transactional leaders lead to low follower satisfaction, while encouraging maintenance of the status quo (Bass et al., 1987). Likewise, transactional leaders find success by focusing on task-oriented exchange relationships to achieve success in attaining goals. Transformational leaders lead change-usually on greater levels of the organization and follower of transformational leaders are generally more committed and dedicated to the leader and goals of the organization. (Bass, 1985; Tichy Devanna, 1986). Transformational leaders articulate a vision for a future of their organization, while at the same time intellectually stimulate subordinates and focus on differences among people (Yammarino Bass, 1990). Furthermore, transformational leadership is based on the personal values, beliefs, and qualities of the leader rather than on an exchange process between leaders and followers. In addition transformational leadership differs from transactional leadership in some areas. Firstly, Transformational leadership develops followers into leaders, means followers are given greater freedom to control their own behavior. Transformational leadership rallies people around a mission and defines the boundaries within which followers can operate in relative freedom to accomplish organizational goals. Secondly, transformational leader pays attention to each individuals need for growth and development. Therefore, the leader sets examples and assigns tasks not only to meet immediate needs but also to elevate followers needs and abilities to higher level and link them to the organizations mission. Transformational leaders change followers so that they are empowered to change the organization. Thirdly, transformational leaders motivate people to do more than originally expected. Followers admire these leaders, want to identify with them, and have a high degree of trust in them. Transformational leaders motivates people not just to follow the leader personally but also to believe in the need for change and be willing to make personal sacrifices for the greater purpose. Fourthly, the most significant role of the transformational leader may be to find a vision for the organization that is significantly better than the old one and to enlist others in sharing the dream. Change can occur only when people have a sense of purpose as well as a desirable picture of where the organization is going. Without vision, there can be no transformation. Whereas transactional leaders promote stability, transformational leaders create significant change in followers as well as in organizations. Leaders can learn to be transformational as well as transactional. Effective leaders exhibit both transactional and transformational leadership patterns. They accentuate not only their abilities to build a vision and empower and energize others, but also the transactional skills of designing structures, control systems, and reward systems that can help people achieve the vision.(Marfred F.R. Kets De Vries, 1998) 4.0. Conclusion We live in an period of time where leadership symbolizes a emotional, developmental, and motivational part of organizational achievement; thats why a range of subordinate results/outcomes are important things to consider when we evaluate leadership successfulness. Having looked thoroughly through all the studies examined to evaluate whether transformational or transactional leadership styles impacts positively on individuals performances on a stressful task, and also when taking into account social support, efficiency beliefs, negative emotions. For example, One of this kind of experimental examine was held and that experiment took part 240 (two hindered forty) participants, they are watched video instructions for a stressful task. The experimental study provided evidence that transformational leadership is advantageous not only for performance, but also when considering effectiveness beliefs, social support, stress assessments, and negative emotions. Leaders of the future are encountered/faced with heavy challenges. Leaders must be clever at influencing followers motivational, emotional, and developmental needs in the stressful circumstance of present work. This kind of changes in the focus of modern leadership successfulness requires that leadership explorers go after suit and need consider a wider range of unpredictable outcomes in leadership research. In addition I would like also add that Transformational leaders, with their excellent arsenal of inspirational motivation, Individualized support, idealized influence and intellectual stimulation have to meet these challenges of in our day and those of the upcoming future.